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Volume 25, Issue 4 (Winter 2024)
Advances in Cognitive Sciences 2024, 25(4): 48-66 |
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Asaadi S, Kohansal L, Ghayedi Z, Ghasemi Y, Jamshidi Goharrizi F. Discussing the effectiveness of brain exercise and Captain’s Log computerized cognitive rehabilitation on cognitive avoidance and executive function in students with specific learning disorders. Advances in Cognitive Sciences 2024; 25 (4) :48-66
URL: http://icssjournal.ir/article-1-1628-en.html
URL: http://icssjournal.ir/article-1-1628-en.html
Soheila Asaadi * 
1, Laleh Kohansal2 , Zahra Ghayedi3 , Yeganeh Ghasemi4 , Faezeh Jamshidi Goharrizi5
1, Laleh Kohansal2 , Zahra Ghayedi3 , Yeganeh Ghasemi4 , Faezeh Jamshidi Goharrizi5
1- Lecturer in Psychology Department, Rahman Institute of Higher Education, Ramsar, Iran
2- Master of Educational Management, Department of Educational Management, Tonekabon Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon, Iran
3- Master of Clinical Psychology, Department of Psychology, Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran
4- Bachelor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran
5- PhD Student in Cultural Sociology, Department of Sociology, Kish International Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kish Island, Hormozgan, Iran
2- Master of Educational Management, Department of Educational Management, Tonekabon Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon, Iran
3- Master of Clinical Psychology, Department of Psychology, Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran
4- Bachelor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran
5- PhD Student in Cultural Sociology, Department of Sociology, Kish International Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kish Island, Hormozgan, Iran
Abstract: (428 Views)
Introduction
Learning disability is a type of neuro-developmental disability with biological origin. The basis of this disorder is at the level of cognition. Additionally, it is associated with symptoms such as reading incorrectly and with difficulty in words, understanding meanings, spelling problems, writing, calculating numbers, and understanding mathematics. This deficiency is affected by the person’s chronological age; it interferes with academic activities and work performance or the person’s daily life activities. People with specific learning disorders have defects in information processing, visual and auditory perception, memory, and attention. One of the problems of students with unique learning disorders is weakness in executive function. Executive function is a set of excellent abilities, including self-management, self-initiation, planning, cognitive flexibility, working memory, organization, dynamic perception of time, predicting the future, and solving problems. Besides, it helps the child in daily activities and learning assignments. A student’s academic success depends to a large extent on his ability to plan, organize, and prioritize information, regulate his attention, manipulate information in his working memory, and monitor his/her progress. Cognitive avoidance is another factor that students deal with and are not paid attention to in educational aspects. Therefore, the present study aimed to compare the effectiveness of brain exercise training and Captain’s Log computerized cognitive rehabilitation training on cognitive avoidance and executive functioning of students with learning disabilities.
Methods
The current research method was semi-experimental with a pre-test-post-test design and a control group with a three-month follow-up period. The statistical population of the research included all students aged 7 to 9 (first and third grades) with learning disabilities in the academic year 2022-2023 who were referred to learning disability centers located in Tonekabon city, Iran (78 students), of which 45 were in available based on the entry criteria. They were randomly selected into three groups: the first experiment (brain exercise training), the second experiment (Captain’s Log computerized rehabilitation), and the control group. The criteria for entering the research include written consent of the parents regarding the student’s participation in the research, the student’s interest in attending the meetings, attendance in the second and third grades, confirmation by the center’s specialist regarding the student’s learning disorder (7-9 years old), medium to high intelligence (90-110), lack of Suffering from other psychological disorders, not suffering from other disorders such as vision, hearing and movement defects, not receiving psychological and drug treatments during the last two months. Exit criteria also include failure to attend meetings for more than two meetings, refusal of parents or students to attend meetings, failure to attend more than two meetings, confusion of questionnaires, or unwillingness to complete them. The researcher committed to the participants in the control group in order to comply with the ethical principle of research justice. After the sessions end, interventions will be implemented for the applicants. The first group underwent brain exercise training during eight sessions of 60 minutes and one session per week, and the second group underwent Captain’s Log sessions during 15 sessions of 30 minutes twice a week; during this time, the control group was placed on the waiting list. The questionnaires used in the research were avoidance questionnaires. Saxon and Douglas (2008) and Gioia et al.’s (2000) cognitive performance questionnaire were administered after the post-test sessions and three months after the last follow-up session. Finally, the data were analyzed using the mixed variance analysis method and SPSS version 24 software.
Results
The research findings revealed a significant difference between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of thought suppression for the variable of thought suppression (F=30.94, df=2, P<0.01). The eta squared is 0.691. This showed that 69.1% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores in thought suppression were related to applying the independent variable. Besides, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log, group and control group) was significant (F=28.705, df=4, P<0.05). Similarly, for the variable of thought substitution (F=111.185, df=2, P<0.01), there was a significant difference between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of thought substitution (P<0.01). The eta squared is 0.726. This showed that 72.6% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test and follow-up scores in thought substitution was related to applying the independent variable. Correspondingly, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) was significant (F=36.593, df=4, P<0.05). Moreover, for the variable of distraction (F=90.744, df=2, P<0.01), there was a significant difference between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of distraction (P<0.01). The eta squared was 0.684. This showed that 68.4% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores in distraction was related to applying the independent variable. Likewise, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) was significant (F=23.806, df=4, P<0.05). Additionally, for the variable of avoidance of stimulating cues (F=99.187, df=2, P<0.01), a significant difference was found between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of avoidance of stimulating cues (P<0.01). The eta squared was 0.703. This showed that 70.3% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores in avoidance of stimulating cues is related to applying the independent variable. Furthermore, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) is significant (F=16.887, df=4, P<0.05). Besides, for the variable of changing mental imagery to verbal thoughts (F=78.269, df=2, P<0.01), a significant difference was observed between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of changing mental imagery to verbal thoughts (P<0.01). The eta squared was 0.651. This showed that 65.1% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores in changing mental imagery to verbal thoughts was related to applying the independent variable. In addition, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) was significant (F=25.597, df=4, P<0.05). There was a significant difference between the pre-test, post-test and follow-up scores of all components of executive function (P<0.01). Moreover, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) was significant in all cases. The results of the Bonferroni adjusted test for comparing the scores of cognitive avoidance components show that. According to the table above, a significant difference was fond between the pre-test and post-test scores in thought suppression, thought substitution, distraction, avoidance of stimulating cues, and changing mental imagery to verbal thoughts. Moreover, there was no significant difference between the post-test and follow-up scores. This indicated the persistence of the effectiveness of the intervention. The results of the Bonferroni adjusted test for comparing the scores of executive function components showed, as shown in the table above, a significant difference was found between the pre-test and post-test scores in inhibition, shifting attention, emotional control, initiation, working memory, planning, organization of materials and monitoring. No significant difference was observed between the post-test and follow-up scores. This indicated the persistence of the effectiveness of the intervention.
Conclusion
In general, according to the findings of the research, it can be said that brain exercise and activation of the brain structure probably increases the amount of attention and academic concentration and, as a result, increases academic success, and Captain’s Log software is attractive due to its innovation in the type of exercise. Furthermore, involving both cerebral hemispheres and the rewarding system of this software creates the motivation for the student to go to higher levels and to be able to use his executive and avoidance functions in a better way. If we can make the educational content of students with learning disabilities into software, it will help students to learn concepts, understand relationships, visual perception, learn numbers and classification, and self-reward system. Nowadays, children’s desire to use computer games has increased, and this approach can be helpful in learning.
Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
Before starting the study, informed consent was obtained from the parents of all students before starting the study. Besides, the participants were coded, and the principle of confidentiality was observed.
Authors’ contributions
All authors contributed equally to the preparation of this article.
Funding
In conducting this research, the researchers did not receive financial support from any organization.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their utmost gratitude to all the participating students and their parents, school staff, and the officials of Tonekabon Health Center who helped us collect the findings.
Conflict of interest
This article has no conflict of interest
Learning disability is a type of neuro-developmental disability with biological origin. The basis of this disorder is at the level of cognition. Additionally, it is associated with symptoms such as reading incorrectly and with difficulty in words, understanding meanings, spelling problems, writing, calculating numbers, and understanding mathematics. This deficiency is affected by the person’s chronological age; it interferes with academic activities and work performance or the person’s daily life activities. People with specific learning disorders have defects in information processing, visual and auditory perception, memory, and attention. One of the problems of students with unique learning disorders is weakness in executive function. Executive function is a set of excellent abilities, including self-management, self-initiation, planning, cognitive flexibility, working memory, organization, dynamic perception of time, predicting the future, and solving problems. Besides, it helps the child in daily activities and learning assignments. A student’s academic success depends to a large extent on his ability to plan, organize, and prioritize information, regulate his attention, manipulate information in his working memory, and monitor his/her progress. Cognitive avoidance is another factor that students deal with and are not paid attention to in educational aspects. Therefore, the present study aimed to compare the effectiveness of brain exercise training and Captain’s Log computerized cognitive rehabilitation training on cognitive avoidance and executive functioning of students with learning disabilities.
Methods
The current research method was semi-experimental with a pre-test-post-test design and a control group with a three-month follow-up period. The statistical population of the research included all students aged 7 to 9 (first and third grades) with learning disabilities in the academic year 2022-2023 who were referred to learning disability centers located in Tonekabon city, Iran (78 students), of which 45 were in available based on the entry criteria. They were randomly selected into three groups: the first experiment (brain exercise training), the second experiment (Captain’s Log computerized rehabilitation), and the control group. The criteria for entering the research include written consent of the parents regarding the student’s participation in the research, the student’s interest in attending the meetings, attendance in the second and third grades, confirmation by the center’s specialist regarding the student’s learning disorder (7-9 years old), medium to high intelligence (90-110), lack of Suffering from other psychological disorders, not suffering from other disorders such as vision, hearing and movement defects, not receiving psychological and drug treatments during the last two months. Exit criteria also include failure to attend meetings for more than two meetings, refusal of parents or students to attend meetings, failure to attend more than two meetings, confusion of questionnaires, or unwillingness to complete them. The researcher committed to the participants in the control group in order to comply with the ethical principle of research justice. After the sessions end, interventions will be implemented for the applicants. The first group underwent brain exercise training during eight sessions of 60 minutes and one session per week, and the second group underwent Captain’s Log sessions during 15 sessions of 30 minutes twice a week; during this time, the control group was placed on the waiting list. The questionnaires used in the research were avoidance questionnaires. Saxon and Douglas (2008) and Gioia et al.’s (2000) cognitive performance questionnaire were administered after the post-test sessions and three months after the last follow-up session. Finally, the data were analyzed using the mixed variance analysis method and SPSS version 24 software.
Results
The research findings revealed a significant difference between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of thought suppression for the variable of thought suppression (F=30.94, df=2, P<0.01). The eta squared is 0.691. This showed that 69.1% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores in thought suppression were related to applying the independent variable. Besides, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log, group and control group) was significant (F=28.705, df=4, P<0.05). Similarly, for the variable of thought substitution (F=111.185, df=2, P<0.01), there was a significant difference between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of thought substitution (P<0.01). The eta squared is 0.726. This showed that 72.6% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test and follow-up scores in thought substitution was related to applying the independent variable. Correspondingly, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) was significant (F=36.593, df=4, P<0.05). Moreover, for the variable of distraction (F=90.744, df=2, P<0.01), there was a significant difference between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of distraction (P<0.01). The eta squared was 0.684. This showed that 68.4% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores in distraction was related to applying the independent variable. Likewise, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) was significant (F=23.806, df=4, P<0.05). Additionally, for the variable of avoidance of stimulating cues (F=99.187, df=2, P<0.01), a significant difference was found between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of avoidance of stimulating cues (P<0.01). The eta squared was 0.703. This showed that 70.3% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores in avoidance of stimulating cues is related to applying the independent variable. Furthermore, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) is significant (F=16.887, df=4, P<0.05). Besides, for the variable of changing mental imagery to verbal thoughts (F=78.269, df=2, P<0.01), a significant difference was observed between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of changing mental imagery to verbal thoughts (P<0.01). The eta squared was 0.651. This showed that 65.1% of the differences between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores in changing mental imagery to verbal thoughts was related to applying the independent variable. In addition, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) was significant (F=25.597, df=4, P<0.05). There was a significant difference between the pre-test, post-test and follow-up scores of all components of executive function (P<0.01). Moreover, the interaction of the test with the group (brain exercise group, computerized cognitive rehabilitation Captain’s Log group, and control group) was significant in all cases. The results of the Bonferroni adjusted test for comparing the scores of cognitive avoidance components show that. According to the table above, a significant difference was fond between the pre-test and post-test scores in thought suppression, thought substitution, distraction, avoidance of stimulating cues, and changing mental imagery to verbal thoughts. Moreover, there was no significant difference between the post-test and follow-up scores. This indicated the persistence of the effectiveness of the intervention. The results of the Bonferroni adjusted test for comparing the scores of executive function components showed, as shown in the table above, a significant difference was found between the pre-test and post-test scores in inhibition, shifting attention, emotional control, initiation, working memory, planning, organization of materials and monitoring. No significant difference was observed between the post-test and follow-up scores. This indicated the persistence of the effectiveness of the intervention.
Conclusion
In general, according to the findings of the research, it can be said that brain exercise and activation of the brain structure probably increases the amount of attention and academic concentration and, as a result, increases academic success, and Captain’s Log software is attractive due to its innovation in the type of exercise. Furthermore, involving both cerebral hemispheres and the rewarding system of this software creates the motivation for the student to go to higher levels and to be able to use his executive and avoidance functions in a better way. If we can make the educational content of students with learning disabilities into software, it will help students to learn concepts, understand relationships, visual perception, learn numbers and classification, and self-reward system. Nowadays, children’s desire to use computer games has increased, and this approach can be helpful in learning.
Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
Before starting the study, informed consent was obtained from the parents of all students before starting the study. Besides, the participants were coded, and the principle of confidentiality was observed.
Authors’ contributions
All authors contributed equally to the preparation of this article.
Funding
In conducting this research, the researchers did not receive financial support from any organization.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their utmost gratitude to all the participating students and their parents, school staff, and the officials of Tonekabon Health Center who helped us collect the findings.
Conflict of interest
This article has no conflict of interest
Keywords: Brain exercise training, Captain’s Log computerized cognitive rehabilitation training, Cognitive avoidance, Executive function
Type of Study: Research |
Received: 2023/10/21 | Accepted: 2023/12/19 | Published: 2024/04/22
Received: 2023/10/21 | Accepted: 2023/12/19 | Published: 2024/04/22
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