Advances in Cognitive Sciences

fa ارزشیابی موقعیت نورون‌های آینه‌ای بر روی پیوستار اطلاعات در علوم اعصاب تربیتی An evaluation of the position of mirror neurons on the continuum of information in educational neuroscience آموزش و پرورش و بازتوانی شناختی مروری <div style="text-align: justify;">مقدمه: اگرچه علوم اعصاب تربیتی یک منبع اطلاعاتی ارزشمند برای تعلیم و تربیت است، اما بخشی از مفاهیم و اطلاعاتی که با عنوان کاربردهای آموزشی علوم اعصاب منتشر و تبلیغ می‌شود اطلاعات معتبر نیستند. هرگونه مفهوم یا راهبرد آموزشی در این حوزه باید مورد ارزشیابی قرار گیرد به این منظور که درجه اعتبار علمی و تناسب تربیتی آن مشخص گردد. مطالعه حاضر به هدف معرفی یک چارچوب برای ارزشیابی اطلاعات در حوزه علوم اعصاب تربیتی با تمرکز بر مفهوم نورون‌های آینه‌ای انجام شد. روش کار:  این مقاله از طریق مروری بر نتایج مطالعات گذشته ضمن توصیف پیوستار دسته‌بندی اطلاعات در علوم اعصاب تربیتی به تعیین موقعیت نورون‌های آینه‌ای بر روی این پیوستار می‌پردازد. یافته‌ها: برای تفکیک اطلاعات معتبر از اطلاعات فاقد اعتبار در حوزه علوم اعصاب تربیتی میتوان آنها را بر روی یک پیوستار ترسیم کرد که در یک طرف آن اطلاعات تثبیت یافته و در طرف دیگر افسانههای عصبی قرار دارند. برخی مفاهیم هم هستند که به آنها نظرورزی هوشمندانه گفته میشود که ممکن است در آینده به دسته افسانههای عصبی بپیوندند یا این که به اطلاعات تثبیتیافته تبدیل شوند. مفهوم نورونهای آینهای یکی از مفاهیمی که در دهههای گذشته مورد توجه متخصصین علوم اعصاب قرار گرفته و ترجمه آن به کاربردهای تربیتی نیز مورد استقبال واقع شده است. مرور مطالعات درباره نورونهای آینهای بیانگر آن است که این مفهوم در دسته نظرورزی هوشمندانه قرار دارد، چرا که هنوز درباره اعتبار نتایج مطالعات مرتبط با این حوزه مناقشه وجود دارد. نتیجه‌گیری: مفهوم نورون‌های آینه‌ای یک نظرورزی هوشمندانه است که نیازمند کاوش و بررسی بیشتر است و بنابراین هر گونه استخراج یا استنتاج کاربردهای تربیتی از نتایج مطالعات مرتبط با نورون‌های آینه‌ای باید با احتیاط صورت پذیرد.  </div> <div style="text-align: justify;">Introduction Education is a practical field, similar to medicine, where the disciplines of philosophy, psychology, and sociology have played significant roles in its evolution (1, 2). However, the rapid development of neuroscience during the past decades has encouraged some educators to view neuroscience as an additional interesting and valuable source of information and seek to translate the neural mechanisms of learning and development into educational applications. Such works marked the emergence of a new learning science, known under different titles such as "educational neurosciences" or "mind, brain, and education science", more known among other labels. This new science of learning is an interdisciplinary field that seeks to integrate the concepts, methods, and findings of neuroscience, education, and psychology to better understand the nature of learning and development and, accordingly, to improve educational policies and practices (3-11). The field is advancing quickly, with a wealth of information purportedly based on the neuroscience of learning. Therefore, evaluating this body of knowledge is essential to diffuse what can be trusted and used in real educational environments and what should be debunked (12-24). The main focus of this article is the widely known discovery of mirror neurons that have been invoked to explain some educational phenomena, including imitation and learning by observing, which have long been used as powerful strategies for learning. Methods The first part of the article describes the continuum of information in educational neuroscience, ranging from what is fact and what is myth (4, 6, 14). From this continuum, it is possible to categorize information in the field into four categories, as shown in Figure 1. “Well established”                               “Probably so”                  “Intelligent speculation”                                 “Neuromyths” <v:shape adj="540" fillcolor="#5b9bd5 [3204]" id="Left-Right_x0020_Arrow_x0020_3" o:gfxdata="UEsDBBQABgAIAAAAIQC75UiUBQEAAB4CAAATAAAAW0NvbnRlbnRfVHlwZXNdLnhtbKSRvU7DMBSF dyTewfKKEqcMCKEmHfgZgaE8wMW+SSwc27JvS/v23KTJgkoXFsu+P+c7Ol5vDoMTe0zZBl/LVVlJ gV4HY31Xy4/tS3EvRSbwBlzwWMsjZrlprq/W22PELHjb51r2RPFBqax7HCCXIaLnThvSAMTP1KkI +gs6VLdVdad08ISeCho1ZLN+whZ2jsTzgcsnJwldluLxNDiyagkxOquB2Knae/OLUsyEkjenmdzb mG/YhlRnCWPnb8C898bRJGtQvEOiVxjYhtLOxs8AySiT4JuDystlVV4WPeM6tK3VaILeDZxIOSsu ti/jidNGNZ3/J08yC1dNv9v8AAAA//8DAFBLAwQUAAYACAAAACEArTA/8cEAAAAyAQAACwAAAF9y ZWxzLy5yZWxzhI/NCsIwEITvgu8Q9m7TehCRpr2I4FX0AdZk2wbbJGTj39ubi6AgeJtl2G9m6vYx jeJGka13CqqiBEFOe2Ndr+B03C3WIDihMzh6RwqexNA281l9oBFTfuLBBhaZ4ljBkFLYSMl6oAm5 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L2RyYXdpbmcxLnhtbFBLAQItABQABgAIAAAAIQCRLWpJWAYAAA8aAAAaAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8F AABjbGlwYm9hcmQvdGhlbWUvdGhlbWUxLnhtbFBLAQItABQABgAIAAAAIQCcZkZBuwAAACQBAAAq AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAJ8LAABjbGlwYm9hcmQvZHJhd2luZ3MvX3JlbHMvZHJhd2luZzEueG1sLnJl bHNQSwUGAAAAAAUABQBnAQAAogwAAAAA " strokecolor="#1f4d78 [1604]" strokeweight="1pt" style="position:absolute; left:0; text-align:left; margin-left:9px; margin-top:10px; width:439.35pt; height:22pt; flip:y; z-index:251660288; v-text-anchor:middle" type="#_x0000_t69">  </v:shape> “The best applications”                                                                                                                 “The misapplications” Figure 1. The continuum of information in educational neuroscience in terms of scientific validity and educational relevance Accordingly, the information in educational neuroscience can be grouped into four categories: well-established (information with strong evidence of effectiveness, such as neuroplasticity), probably so (information with moderate evidence of effectiveness, such as sensitive periods), intelligent speculation (information with limited evidence of effectiveness such as gender differences and learning) and neuromyths (information with insufficient evidence of effectiveness such as right brain/left brain learning (4, 6). Following a brief description of four categories of information about the learning brain and its application to education, the current research was reviewed to identify mirror neurons' position on the information continuum in educational neuroscience. Results In 1992, a team of neuroscientists led by Giacomo Rizzolatti discovered a new network of neurons in the premotor cortex of macaques that was activated both when the monkey performed a specific motor function such as grasping and when the animal observed the same action performed by someone else (25-30). Such neurons were known as mirror neurons, and it was proposed that they provide the basis for many of humans’ social abilities, including imitation, empathy, action understanding, theory of mind, and language acquisition (31-33). In such a context, it did not take long for efforts to translate findings about mirror neurons into clinical and educational applications. In the field of education, in particular, it was thought that the discovery of mirror neurons has helped us understand the neurobiological bases of observational learning, imitation, and mind reading, and such an understanding contains clear messages for learning and education (34-36). In 2009, seventeen years after the discovery of mirror neurons, scientists reported for the first time that they had observed neurons in the human brain (37), and education researchers continued to describe the function of mirror neurons in the learning process. They recommend that teachers get to know the nature and function of mirror neurons so that they can communicate more effectively with students (38-40). At the same time, educational neuroscientists argued that educators are required to be very cautious with interpreting mirror neuron findings (41-43). However, subsequent research suggested that mirror neuron data sometimes is misinterpreted (44-47). For instance, Gregory Hickok reexamined the mirror neuron story and concluded that it had been built on a tenuous foundation (44-46). Rizzolatti and colleagues responded to Hickock’s criticisms (48, 49), and the research of mirror neurons continues to generate intense debate (50). Despite this constructive criticism, some scientists have shown that mirror neurons are sometimes misinterpreted, but they have also made significant advances, which should encourage further, more systematic research (30). Taken together, mirror neuron findings and their interpretation have been highly controversial, and controversy over such studies' educational implications is also being followed. As previously noted, educational applications of brain research can be viewed as a continuum that ranges from "the best applications" to "misapplications". Therefore, the idea of mirror neurons and its application to education and learning may be included in the category of intelligent speculations. The concepts in this category have not yet been approved and supported, and in the future, they may be added to the first category (i.e., scientific facts), or they may join the fourth category (i.e., neuromyths) (4, 6). Therefore, the educational implications of mirror neurons are not applicable in the classroom because still no solid evidence and logic was observed to support their scientific validity and educational relevance (17). However, this does not mean that research in the field of mirror neurons should be stopped. On the contrary, it indicates that studies about mirror neurons should be designed more carefully, and the results should be interpreted cautiously (51). Thus, as Heyes and Catmur (30) have concluded, mirror neurons should not be tarnished. They still have the potential to be explored as an essential structure in the human brain. Conclusion While mirror neurons have been a topic of interest among neuroscientists and educators alike, this review suggests that much of the existing data on mirror neurons do not support the conclusions. Thus, at this point, much research remains to be done, and educators should view mirror neurons as an intelligent speculation. That means they must be careful in interpreting educational applications of mirror neuron literature. A need to open a constructive dialogue existed between educational and social neuroscientists to formulate research proposals focusing on understanding the socio-emotional aspects of learning. Such collaboration can significantly improve our understanding of the nature and function of mirror neurons as well. For instance, it is suggested to investigate whether mirror neurons play a role in forming implicit curriculum (52), what is learned but not explicitly intended to be taught to students such as the behaviors and attitudes conveyed through schools' social structure and interactions between teachers and students. Ethical Considerations Compliance with ethical guidelines Ethical approval is not required since the data synthesized in this review are the results extracted from already published studies. Authors' contributions The author of this paper has not received any contribution to the writing process. Funding The author received no financial support for the present research, authorship, and publication. Acknowledgments The author thanks the reviewers for their guidance and constructive feedback on the article. Conflict of interest The author declared no conflict of interest.  </div> علوم اعصاب تربیتی, واقعیتهای علمی, افسانههای عصبی, نظرورزیهای هوشمندانه, نورونهای آینهای Educational neuroscience, Scientific facts, Neuromyths, Intelligent speculations, Mirror neurons 170 182 http://icssjournal.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-95-2&slc_lang=fa&sid=1 Ali Nouri علی نوری a.nouri@malayeru.ac.ir 100319475328460016120 100319475328460016120 Yes Associate Professor, Department of Education Studies, Faculty of Humanities, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran دانشیار، گروه علوم تربیتی، دانشکده علوم انسانی، دانشگاه ملایر ، ملایر، ایران